Resilience

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Definitiion

  • 1.a. The (or an) act of rebounding or springing back; rebound, recoil. (See also quot. 1656.)
1626 BACON Sylva §245 Whether there be any such Resilience in Eccho's.
1656 BLOUNT Glossogr., Resilience, a leaping or skipping back, a rebounding; a going from ones word.
1799 COLERIDGE Hymn to Earth, Mightier far was the joy of thy sudden resilience.
1843 CARLYLE Past & Pr. (1858) 79 The Heaviest..has its deflexions..nay at times its resiliences, its reboundings.
1866 J. MARTINEAU Ess. I. 41 The heart does not always propel without resilience.
b. Revolt, recoil from something.
1858 SEARS Athan. III. ii. 267 Those smaller sects whose fierce resilience from Catholicism isolates them from the common reason.
1890 GARNETT Milton 38 Nor can we doubt that the old Puritan fully approved his son's resilience from a church defined by Arminianism and prelacy.
c. Repugnance, antagonism.
1882 MOZLEY Reminisc. I. xii. 85 It was possibly a mutual resilience between him [Hartley Coleridge] and people of more orderly ways that prevented him from standing at Oriel till some years after.
  • 2.a. Elasticity; the power of resuming the original shape or position after compression, bending, etc.; spec. the energy per unit volume absorbed by a material when it is subjected to strain, or the maximum value of this when the elastic limit is not exceeded.
1824 TREDGOLD Cast Iron 82 The term modulus of resilience, I have ventured to apply to the number which represents the power of a material to resist an impulsive force.
1834 Good's Study Med. (ed. 4) I. 530 The natural elasticity or resilience of the lungs.
1867 C. T. F. YOUNG Fouling Iron Ships 164 To bend back again.., if the metal possesses sufficient resilience to do so.
1897 Allbutt's Syst. Med. IV. 470 [The skin] giving a sensation of the loss of all elasticity or resilience.
1908 E. S. ANDREWS Theory & Design of Structures i. 27 The work done per unit volume of a material in producing strain is called resilience. ::1965 J. A. CORMACK Definitions Strength of Materials iii. 67 Show that resilience per cubic inch in direct tension or compression may be expressed in the form f2/2E, where f is the intensity of stress induced and E is the modulus of elasticity. \
1978 B. I. SANDOR Strength of Materials iv. 79 The maximum value of the elastic strain energy in a unit volume that has not been permanently deformed is called the modulus of resilience.

Description

Resilience in psychology is the positive capacity of people to cope with stress and catastrophe. It is also used to indicate a characteristic of resistance to future negative events. In this sense "resilience" corresponds to cumulative "protective factors" and is used in opposition to cumulative "risk factors". The phrase "risk and resilience"' in this area of study is quite common. Commonly used terms, which are essentially synonymous within psychology, are "resilience", "psychological resilience", "emotional resilience", "hardiness", and "resourcefulness".

Definition of resilience

Resilience is defined as a dynamic process that individuals exhibit positive behavioral adaptation when they encounter significant adversity or trauma.[1] Resilience is a two-dimensional construct concerning the exposure of adversity and the positive adjustment outcomes of that adversity.[2] Adversity refers to any risks associated with negative life conditions that are statistically related to adjustment difficulties, such as poverty, children of schizophrenic mothers, or experiences of the [[911|9/11 attacks. Positive adaptation, on the other hand, is considered in a demonstration of manifested behaviour on social competence or success at meeting any particular tasks at a specific life stage, such as the absence of psychiatric distress after the September 11th terrorism attacks on the United States.[3]

History of research on resilience

Emmy Werner was one of the first scientists to use the term resilience in 1970s. She studied a cohort of children from Kauai, Hawaiia. Kauai was quite poor and many of the children in the study grew up with alcoholic or mentally ill parents. Many of the parents were also out of work.[4] Werner noted that of the children who grew up in these very bad situations, two-thirds exhibited destructive behaviors in their later teen years, such as chronic unemployment, substance abuse, and out-of-wedlock births (in case of teenage girls). However one-third of these youngsters did not exhibit destructive behaviours. Werner called the latter group 'resilient'.[5] Resilient children and their families had traits that made them different from non-resilient children and families.

Resilience emerged as a major theoretical and research topic from the studies of children of schizophrenic mothers in the 1980s.[6] In Masten’s (1989) study,[7] the results showed that children with a schizophrenic parent may not obtain comforting caregiving compared to children with healthy parents, and such situation had an impact on children’s development. However, some children of ill parents thrived well and were competent in academic achievement, and therefore led researchers make efforts to understand such responses to adversity. In the onset of the research on resilience, researchers have been devoted to discovering the protective factors that explain people’s adaptation to adverse conditions, such as maltreatment,[8] catastrophic life events,[9] or urban poverty.[10] The focus of empirical work then has been shifted to understand the underlying protective processes. Researchers endeavor to uncover how some factors (e.g. family) may contribute to positive outcomes.[11]

Expressions of resilience

Resilience can be described by viewing:

  • good outcomes regardless of high-risk status,
  • constant competence under stress, and
  • recovery from trauma.[12]

Resilient people are expected to adapt successfully even though they experience risk factors that are against good development. Risk factors are related to poor or negative outcomes. For example, poverty, low socioeconomic status, and mothers with schizophrenia are coupled with lower academic achievement and more emotional or behavioral problems. Risk factors may be cumulative, carrying additive and exponential risks when they co-occur.[13]. When these risk factors happen, according to a study conducted on children,[14] resilient children are capable of resulting in no behavioural problems and developing well. Additionally, they are more active and socially responsive. These positive outcomes are attributed to some protective factors, such as good parenting or positive school experiences.

Resilience is also treated as an effective coping mechanism when people are under stress, such as divorce. In this context, resilience is relevant with sustained competence exhibited by individuals who experience challenging conditions. Most research built on this perspective focuses on the children’s response to parents’ divorce in terms of gender. Boys show more conduct problems than do girls; girls obtain more support from mothers and are less exposed to family conflict than boys. Although divorce may have some negative impacts on children’s development, it may help children in single households to become more responsible than those in dual-parents households because of helping with chores. Some protective factors attributing to resilient children in single-family, for example, are adults caring for children during or after major stressors (e.g., divorce), or self-efficacy for motivating endeavor at adaptation.

Finally, resilience can be viewed as the phenomenon of recovery from a prolonged or severe adversity, or from an immediate danger or stress.[15][16] In this case, resilience is not related to vulnerability. People who experience acute trauma, for example, may show extreme anxiety, sleep problems, and intrusive thoughts. Over time, these symptoms decrease and recovery is likely. This realm of research shows that age and the supportive qualities of the family influence the condition of recovery. The Buffalo Creek dam disaster, for example, had longer effects on older children than on younger.[17] Additionally, children with supportive families show fewer symptoms (e.g., dreams of personal death) that Chowchilla bus kidnapping resulted in than troubled families.[18]

Factors related to resilience

Two factors are found to modify the negative effects of adverse life situations.

The first factor is vulnerability which includes any indices aggregating the negative effects of difficult circumstances. For example, children with low intelligence are more vulnerable than those with high intelligence when both groups experience severe adversities.[19] Another protective factor is related to moderating the negative effects of environmental hazards or a stressful situation in order to direct vulnerable individuals to optimistic paths, such as external social support. More specifically, Werner (1995)[20] distinguished three contexts for protective factors: (1) personal attributes, including outgoing, bright, and positive self-concepts; (2) the family, such as having close bonds with at least one family member or an emotionally stable parent; and (3) the community, like receiving support or counsel from peers.

Besides the above distinction on resilience, research has also been devoted to discovering the individual differences in resilience. Self-esteem, ego-control, and ego-resiliency are related to behavioral adaptation.[21] For example, maltreated children who feel good about themselves may process risk situations differently by attributing different reasons to the environments they experience and, thereby, avoid producing negative internalized self-perceptions. Ego-control is "the threshold or operating characteristics of an individual with regard to the expression or containment" (Block & Block, 1980, p. 43) of their impulses, feelings, and desires. Ego-resilience refers to “dynamic capacity,……to modify his or her model level of ego-control, in either direction, as a function of the demand characteristics of the environmental context" (Block & Block, 1980, p. 48).[22]

Maltreated children, who experienced some risk factors (e.g., single parenting, limited maternal education, or family unemployment), showed lower ego-resilience and intelligence than nonmaltreated children (Cicchetti et al., 1993). Furthermore, maltreated children are more likely than nonmaltreated children to demonstrate disruptive-aggressive, withdraw, and internalized behavior problems (Cicchetti et al., 1993). Finally, ego-resiliency, and positive self-esteem were predictors of competent adaptation in the maltreated children (Cicchetti et al., 1993).

Demographic information (e.g., gender) and resources (e.g., social support) are also used to predict resilience. Examining people's adaptation after the 9/11 attacks (Bonanno, Galea Bucciarelli, & Vlahov, 2007)[23] showed women were associated with less likelihood of resilience than men. Also, individuals who were less involved in affinity groups and organisations showed less resilience. King, King, Fairbank, Keane, and Adams (1998) studied resilience in Vietnam War veterans and found social support to be a major factor contributing to resilience.[24] Schnurr, Lunney, and Sengupta (2004) found that several protective factors among those were the following factors protecting against the development of PTSD:

  • Japanese-American ethnicity, high school degree or college education, older age at entry to war, higher socioeconomic status, and a more positive paternal relationship as premilitary factors
  • Social support at homecoming and current social support as postmilitary factors[25]

and the following factors protecting among the maintenance of PTSD

  • Native Hawaiian or Japanese-American ethnicity and college education as premilitary factors
  • Current social support as postmilitary factor[26]

A number of other factors that promote resilience have been identified:

  • The ability to cope with stress effectively and in a healthy manner
  • Having good problem-solving skills
  • Seeking help
  • Holding the belief that there is something one can do to manage your feelings and cope
  • Having social support
  • Being connected with others, such as family or friends
  • Self-disclosure of the trauma to loved ones
  • Spirituality
  • Having an identity as a survivor as opposed to a victim
  • Helping others
  • Finding positive meaning in the trauma[27]

Notes

  1. * Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). "The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71(3), 543-562.
  2. * Luthar, S. S. & Cicchetti, D. (2000). " The construct of resilience: Implications for interventions and social policies. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 857-885.
  3. * Luthar, S. S. & Cicchetti, D. (2000). " The construct of resilience: Implications for interventions and social policies. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 857-885.
  4. * Werner, E. E. (1971). The children of Kauai : a longitudinal study from the prenatal period to age ten. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press
  5. * Werner, E. E. (1982). Vulnerable but invincible: a longitudinal study of resilient children and youth. New York: McGraw-HillNew York: McGraw-Hill
  6. * Masten, A. S., Best, K. M., & Garmezy, N. (1990). Resilience and development: Contributions from the study of children who overcome adversity. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 425-444.
  7. Masten, A. S. (1989). Resilience in development: Implications of the study of successful adaptation for developmental psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti (Ed.), The emergence of a discipline: Rochester symposium on developmental psychopathology (Vol. 1, pp. 261-294). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
  8. * Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1997). The role of self-organization in the promotion of resilience in maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 9(4), 799-817.
  9. * Fredrickson, B. L., Tugade, M. M., Waugh, C. E., & Larkin, G.. R. (2003). " A prospective study of resilience and emotions following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2002. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(2), 365-376.
  10. Luthar, S. S. (1999). Poverty and children’s adjustment. Newbury Park, CA: Sage
  11. Luthar, S. S. (1999). Poverty and children’s adjustment. Newbury Park, CA: Sage
  12. * Masten, A. S., Best, K. M., & Garmezy, N. (1990). Resilience and development: Contributions from the study of children who overcome adversity. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 425-444.
  13. * Masten, A. S., Best, K. M., & Garmezy, N. (1990). Resilience and development: Contributions from the study of children who overcome adversity. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 425-444.
  14. Werner, E. E. & Smith, R. S. (1982). Vulnerable but invincible: A study of resilient children. New York: McGraw-Hill.
  15. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1999). Stress, coping, and self-regulatory processes. In O. P. John & L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp. 553-575). New York: Guilford Press.
  16. * Davidson, R. J. (2000). " Affective style, psychopathology, and resilience: Brain mechanisms and plasticity. American Psychologist, 55, 1196-1214.
  17. Gleser, G. G., Green, B. L., & Winget, C. (1981). Prolonged psychosocial effects of disaster: A study of Buffalo Creek. New York: Academic, cited in Masten, et al., 1990)
  18. * Terr, L. C. (1983). Chowchilla revisited: The effects of psychic trauma four years after a school-bus kidnapping. American Journal of Psychiatry, 140, 1543-1550., cited in Masten, et al., 1990.
  19. Rutter, M. (2000). Resilience reconsidered: Conceptual considerations, empirical findings, and policy implications. In J. P. Shonkoff & S. J. Meisels (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood intervention (2nd ed., pp. 651-682). New York: Cambridge University Press
  20. * Werner, E. E. (1995). " Resilience in development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 81-85.
  21. * Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., Lynch, M., & Holt, K. D. (1993). Resilience in maltreated children: Processes leading to adaptive outcome. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 629-647.
  22. Block, J. H., & Block, J. (1980). The role of ego-control and ego-resiliency in the organisation of behaviour. In W. A. Collins (Ed.), Development of cognition, affect, and social relations: Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology (Vol. 13, pp. 39-101). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
  23. * Bonanno, G. A., Galea, S., Bucciareli, A., & Vlahov, D. (2007). "What predicts psychological resilience after disaster? The role of demographics, resources, and life stress. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75(5), 671-682.
  24. King, D. W., King, L. A., Fairbank, J. A., Keane, T. M., & Adams, G. (1998). Resilience-recovery factors in posttraumatic stress disorder among female and male Vietnam veterans: Hardiness, postwar social support, and additional stressful life events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 420-434.
  25. Jennifer L. Price, Ph.D.: Findings from the National Vietnam Veterans' Readjustment Study - Factsheet. National Center for PTSD. United States Department of Veterans Affairs [1]
  26. Jennifer L. Price, Ph.D.: Findings from the National Vietnam Veterans' Readjustment Study - Factsheet. National Center for PTSD. United States Department of Veterans Affairs [2]
  27. Matthew Tull, PhD (2007): "Posttraumatic Stress (PTSD): Overcoming Trauma" [3]
  28. E. Werner: The value of applied research for Head Start: A cross-cultural and longitudinal Perspective. In: National Head Start Association Journal of Research and Evaluation, 1997
  29. Abecedarian Project (High-Quality Child Care/Preschool)
  30. The Carolina Abecedarian Project
  31. Sinclair, Mary F., Sandra L. Christenson, and Martha L. Thurow. “Promoting School Completion of Urban Secondary Youth With Emotional or Behavioral Disabilities.” Exceptional Children. Vol. 71, No. 4, 2005, pp. 465-482
  32. American Psychological Association, (2004). For Parents: Helping Teens Build Resilience After Hurricanes. APA Help Center: Disasters & Terrorism, Retrieved 10/16/2008, from Media:https://www.apahelpcenter.org/articles/article.php?id=117
  33. Wang, & Gordon, M. , & E. (1994). Educational Resilience in Inner-City America. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Goldstein, & Brooks, Sam, & Robert B. (Ed.). (2005). Resilience in Children. Springer.
  34. https://www.stressedfamily.com
  35. Garmezy, N. (1974, August) The study of children at risk: New perspectives for developmetal psychopathology.
  36. Bernard, B. (1991). Fostering resiliency in kid: Protective factors in the family, school and community. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory.
  37. Chess, S. (1989). Defying the voice of doom. In T. Dugan & R. Coles (eds.), The child in our times (pp179-199). New York: Brunner Mazel
  38. Wang, M. C., Haertel, G. D., & Walberg, H. J. (in press). Toward knowledge base for school learning. Review of Educational Research.
  39. Bernard, B. (1991) Fostering resiliency in kids: Protective factors in the family, school and community. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory.
  40. Garmezy, N. (1991). Resiliency and vulnerability to adverse developmental outcomes associated with poverty. American Behavioral Scientist, 34(4), 416-430
  41. Wang, Haertel, & Walberg, M. C., G. D., & H. J (Ed.). (1994). Educational Resilience in Inner Cities. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  42. Bernard, B. (1991) Fostering resiliency in kids: Protective factors in the family, school and community. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory.
  43. Werner, E., & Smith, R. (1982). Vulnerable but invincible: A longitudinal study of resilient children and youth, New Tork: Adams, Bannister, & Cox.
  44. * Ong, A. D., Bergeman, C. S., Bisconti, T. L., & Wallace, K. A. (2006). " Psychological resilience, positive emotions, and successful adaptation to stress in later life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(4), 730-749.
  45. * Tugade, M. M., Fredrickson, B. L., & Barrett, L. F. (2004). " Psychological resilience and positive emotional granularity: Examining the benefits of positive emotions on coping and health. Journal of Personality, 72(6), 1161-1190.
  46. * Fredrickson, B. L., Tugade, M. M., Waugh, C. E., & Larkin, G.. R. (2003). " A prospective study of resilience and emotions following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2002. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(2), 365-376.
  47. * Bonanno, G. A., Galea, S., Bucciareli, A., & Vlahov, D. (2007). "What predicts psychological resilience after disaster? The role of demographics, resources, and life stress. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75(5), 671-682.
  48. Nathan Caplan et al.: The Boat People and Achievement in America: A study of family life, hard work, and cultural values. University of Michigan Press (1989)ISBN-0-472-09397-5 and David W. Haines (Hrsg.): Refugees as immigrants: Cambodians, Laotians and Vietnamese in America. Rowman&Littlefield Publishers (1989) ISBN 084767553X, Nathan Caplan et al. (1992): Indochinese Refugee Families and Academic Achievement, In: Scientific American, Ausgabe Februar 1992; S. 18-24
  49. taz.de - Archiv
  50. Weiss, Karin & Dennis, Mike (Hrsg.) (2005): Erfolg in der Nische? Vietnamesen in der DDR und in Ostdeutschland. Münster: LIT Verlag
  51. Weiss, K. & Kindelberger, H.: Zuwanderung und Integration in den neuen Bundesländern – zwischen Transferexistenz und Bildungserfolg - Freiburg: Lambertus.
  52. Glen H. Elder, Rand D. Conger (2000): Children of the Land: Adversity and Success in Rural America. University of Chicago Press ISBN 9780226202662
  53. Elder, G. H.(1974)children of the Great Depression: Social Change in Life Experience. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, page 160
  54. Cohen, Rachel (2004): Kinder studentischer Eltern. Diplomarbeit, page 31
  55. Breitenbach. B. von (1982): Italiener und Spanier als Arbeitnehmer in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, München/Mainz
  56. Die Zeit: Gut angekommen

References

  • Benard, Bonnie (2004) Resiliency: What We Have Learned San Francisco, WestEd. '

Block, J. H., & Block, J. (1980). The role of ego-control and ego-resiliency in the organization of behavior. In W. A. Collins (Ed.), Development of cognition, affect, and social relations: Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology (Vol. 13, pp. 39–101). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum

  • Bonanno, G. A., Galea, S., Bucciareli, A., & Vlahov, D. (2007). What predicts psychological resilience after disaster? The role of demographics, resources, and life stress.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75(5), 671-682.
  • Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1999). Stress, coping, and self-regulatory processes. In O. P. John & L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp. 553–575). New York: Guilford Press.
  • Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., Lynch, M., & Holt, K. D. (1993). Resilience in maltreated children: Processes leading to adaptive outcome. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 629-647.
  • Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1997). The role of self-organization in the promotion of resilience in maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 9(4), 799-817.
  • Davidson, R. J. (2000). Affective style, psychopathology, and resilience: Brain mechanisms and plasticity. American Psychologist, 55, 1196-1214.
  • Fredrickson, B. L., Tugade, M. M., Waugh, C. E., & Larkin, G.. R. (2003). What good are positive emotions in crises? A prospective study of resilience and emotions following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2002.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(2), 365-376.
  • Gleser, G. G., Green, B. L., & Winget, C. (1981). Prolonged psychosocial effects of disaster: A study of Buffalo Creek. New York: Academic.
  • Luthar, S. S. (1999). Poverty and children’s adjustment. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
  • Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work.Child Development, 71(3), 543-562.
  • Luthar, S. S. & Cicchetti, D. (2000). "The construct of resilience: Implications for interventions and social policies.Development and Psychopathology, 12, 857-885.
  • Masten, A. S. (2007). Resilience in developing systems: Progress and promise as the fourth wave rises. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 921-930.
  • Masten, A. S., Best, K. M., & Garmezy, N. (1990). Resilience and development: Contributions from the study of children who overcome adversity. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 425-444.
  • Masten, A. S. (1989). Resilience in development: Implications of the study of successful adaptation for developmental psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti (Ed.), The emergence of a discipline: Rochester symposium on developmental psychopathology (Vol. 1, pp. 261–294). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
  • Masten, A. S. (1999). Resilience comes of age: Reflections on the past and outlook for the next generation of research. In M. D. Glantz & J. L. Johnson (Eds.), Resilience and development: Positive life adaptations (pp. 281–296). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press.
  • Ong, A. D., Bergeman, C. S., Bisconti, T. L., & Wallace, K. A. (2006). Psychological resilience, positive emotions, and successful adaptation to stress in later life.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(4), 730-749.
  • Reivich, Karen, and Shatte, Andrew (2002) The Resilience Factor: 7 Keys to Finding Your Inner Strength and Overcoming Life's Hurdles. Broadway.
  • Rutter, M. (2000). Resilience reconsidered: Conceptual considerations, empirical findings, and policy implications. In J. P. Shonkoff & S. J. * Meisels (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood intervention (2nd ed., pp. 651–682). New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Terr, L. C. (1983). Chowchilla revisited: The effects of psychic trauma four years after a school-bus kidnapping. American Journal of Psychiatry, 140, 1543-1550.
  • Siebert, Al (2005) The Resiliency Advantage: Master Change, Thrive under Pressure, and Bounce Back from Setbacks Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc.
  • Tugade, M. M., Fredrickson, B. L., & Barrett, L. F. (2004). Psychological resilience and positive emotional granularity: Examining the benefits of positive emotions on coping and health.Journal of Personality, 72(6), 1161-1190.
  • Werner, E. E. & Smith, R. S. (1982). Vulnerable but invincible: A study of resilient children. New York: McGraw-Hill.
  • Werner, E. E. (1995). Resilience in development.Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 81-85.
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